Ethics in Data and Web Mining

Ethics in info and Web minelayingLiliam FaraonWhat is the importance of ethics in entropy tap?We live in a time when the pursuit of noesis is indispensable. From the transformations we have witnessed in the past years, we basis ac noesis that t separatelying assumes a growing importance and a requirement for any sector of humanity activity. Some authors say that 90% of each(prenominal) information in the humans has been generated over the last two years, and more and more devices volition be connected to the internet generating info that tidy sum be phthisisd by companies to predict embodiments of consumption and increase specific sales.The obligate 17 profit of Things Facts E reall(a)yone Should Read published by Forbes in October, 2015, brings us an idea of or so numbers and the potential market that is lendable to be exploit straight off there atomic number 18 more objects connected to the internet than commonwealthBy the year of 2020 around 250.000 vehicles entrust be connected to the internet, (saving time go past in traffic, fuel, improving the performance and protecting the environment and generating information)The global clothing device market has gr decl atomic number 18 223% only in 2015 specially by the launching of Fitbit and Apple WatchesInternet of Things will add $10 to $15 trillion to global GDP by 2036 only looking at all the facts some questions are raised, such as how the entropy we pay back is managed and stored? How is it perceived? How businesses are taking advantage from all the that information? And finally, how do we protect our own entropy and make sure is not cosmos social function without consent? Thats where web minelaying poses a threat to respectable values, such as singularity and secrecy.Improvements in IT and storage capacity has enabled companies to bump tools for data collection through numerous a(prenominal) channels. There are a variety of ways individuals generate data, such as ATM vi sits, bar-code readers, biometric devices, denotation and debit card transactions, loyalty clubs, medical records, on berth shopping, rentals, scanners, subscriptions, website browsing and use of many Smart devices available. As a result, there is an exponential growth of the core of data stored and available to be explored. This generation of data brought the need of pertly techniques and technologies that can analyse and convert all this information into useful chouseledge and Data digging becomes a real herculean resource. When all these data are merged and mined, they can infer a someones associations, credit information, health, income, semipolitical interests and tastes.Liu defines data mine as The bear upon of discovering useful patterns or knowledge from data sources The patterns must be valid, potentially useful and understandable. (Liu, 2011, p. 6).Data mining base on algorithms are truly automated and analytical tools and its use is rapidly increasing. By co mbining databases, information visualisation, machine learning, mathematical modelling, pattern recognition, statistics and more recently artificial intelligence, very large and complex datasets can be analysed and relationships, patterns, outliers and trends can be revealed.Figure 1 Data Mining Raw data itself is not useful at all, just now the information that can be extracted from the data is where the real value seats. We have ageless amounts of data being produced and stored, it makes sense companies and governments have the desire to analyse all this data to uncover patterns potentially useful hidden in there. Data Mining process is basically categorised into two classesDescriptive describes the oecumenical properties of information stored in a databasePredictive draws inferences from the data in post to make predictions.Witten emphasises Data Mining is to the highest degree solving problems by analysing data already present in databases (Witten, 2013, p. 4). Decision m akers desire the right answers for unspecific questions and obviously, the more data gathered the more questions raised. Which customers are likely to move in a positive way to a marketing endeavour? What products will have more success when launched? What is the best price upchuck for a new product? How do the competitors tend to react? The rejoinder for those questions cannot be reached based on feelings or intuition, they can be answered by analysing customers behaviour and profile using data mining tools.By amass and summarizing and making use of data mining companies and organisations can identify insights and arrive competitive advantage, recognize potential competitors, improve customer service relationship, tail customer expectations and needs. It also has important uses in social business and science, close to recently Government Agencies are using Data and Web mining applications to uncover criminal activities such as terrorist threats.There are many Data Mining t ools are available in the market nowadays, each one with its particularities, the most common are KNIME, NLTK, Orange, RapidMiner (formerly known as YALE), R-Programming and weka .Ethics must be a condition of the worldly concern, like logic. Ludwig Wittgenstein, 1889-1951. demon social media such as LinkedIn, Facebook and Twitter hold billions of users data, keeping these data protect and as a secret is a big concern. When an individual creates an account on any of those social media channels a insurance agreement is accepted, and it is basically data related.Data Mining analysts use wad in-person information collected by organisations all over the world through many different technologies and use them especially for prediction analysis, but practitioners must be very careful when analysing patterns, accredited kinds of discrimination are not only un respectable but also il effective, gender, religion, race and certain sensitive information is totally unacceptable, in the othe r hand, anonymizing data is very difficult, for example, over 85% of Americans can be identified from publicity available records using just three pieces of information zip code, birth time and sex (Witten, 2013, p.33).When a person shops for a product online, the company has plan of attack to customers address, credit card, name, phone number and other information in their database. But how does the company encrypts the information and protects it from misuse or security breach is and estimable and legal issue. Some proceedss are also raised Is it estimable and legal to use the users information for publicity purposes? How can users protect their right of hiding? Where does the right of a company meets the ethics when sharing its data with some other company to comprehend and understand customers and increase profit by sell this information to third party companies is a very important matter and it must be carefully discussed. There is a thin line between of a persons priva cy and companys right to use it. When a person provides own(prenominal) information, he or she needs to know how and what it will be used and a few steps must be taken to guarantee confidentiality and integrity.The use of data particularly data about people for data mining has serious ethical implications and practitioners of data mining techniques must act responsibly by making themselves aware of the ethical issues that butt against their particular application. (Witten, 2013, p. 33).There is a growing concern regarding to the use of common soldier and sensitive information and the ethical issues of Data Mining must be analysed and understood both from the business and the personal point of view. From a personal point of view, by Data Mining execution respecting consent, privacy and regulations customers big businessman appreciate the fact they are being target with more individualise offers based on circumstances and needs and in return they may be willing to provide mor e specific data about themselves. From a business point of view by respecting the privacy issues companies will save resources as they will be able to target very specific customers for certain products. It is obvious that as any other powerful technology there are negative consequences of Data Mining, some results can ineffective, misdirected or unregulated, but if used correctly it can be very resourceful.Some points are very important and organizations making use of data mining techniques should salute a thought about them when the use of personal data is plannedConnectivity and data sharingAll the users and people that give consent are connected through the internet and share dataSecurity is essentialOnce all the information traffics through databases, companies commove about the security and privacy, that way all the data will be encrypted, the web services will be hosted in a boniface with a certificate installed and authentication userThe importance of Privacy indemnityPr ivacy Policy is a legal statement and regulates the privacy insurance related to users personal data which is under companies responsibilityInfrastructureThe process will not function without an application to analyse, interpret, read and draw patterns from the dataAccount managementGathering and leveragingAccount Management has all the information gathered and leveraged, and elaborate can advertising campaigns. It plays an important situation in the profitability of the companyInformation could be released without the consent of the person, it becomes an ethical dilemma, because sometimes the users are unaware of the information gathered and that is being used by companies. It is very important to highlight that the person has the right to know how it will be used and should be able to have the chance to consent or not the collection and use. And also when a person becomes part of a group profile and used as a decision making basis, the individuality is threatened, people cannot be judged only as group members, but also as an individual, able to make its own decisions.It is likely that in the next few years an inspection of ethical issues and legal implications will be further required, legislation of digital privacy will be developed and laws will enter force, confidentiality and privacy conservation should be the main points of concern. Unauthorised extraction of data will be considered a crime and companies must be ready for that.Data Mining algorithms are very important and powerful tools for analysis and predictions, they are expect to become more and more significant in the future, decision based on data will change the way companies base their processes, of cartroad there are no 100% guarantee that they will succeed, but, are more likely to be successful than decisions based on feelings or gut. Once patterns are revealed profiles can be drown and stereotypes can be used for crime prevention, commercial proposes, marketing campaigns, policies develo pment and many others.interim Data Mining ethical issues need to be raised and sentience increased, as the world continues to develop, more and more data is likely to be collected and the Data Mining processes will become more sophisticated. passel will need to get a clearer idea of privacy and companies will have to become more transparent on its processes of collect, gather and use of data.Cook, Jack (2005). Ethics of data mining. Available athttp//scholarworks.rit.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1443context=articleEthics in Computing. Available at https//ethics.csc.ncsu.edu/privacy/mining/study.php Accessed 02 treat 2017.Fule, Peter. Detecting Privacy and honest Sensitivity in Data Mining Results. Available at http//crpit.com/confpapers/CRPITV26Fule.pdfLiu, Bing. (2011). Web Data Mining Exploring Hyperlinks, Contents, and Usage Data, customsMARR, Bernard.17 Internet Of Things Facts Everyone Should Read (2015). Available at http//www.forbes.com/sites/bernardmarr/2015/10/27/17 -mind-blowing-internet-of-things-facts-everyone-should-read/5e463ad01a7a Accessed 01 march 2017.Wahlstrom, Kirsten (2006). On the Ethical and Legal Implications of Data Mining. Available at https//csem.flinders.edu.au/ query/techreps/SIE06001.pdfWitten, Ian H (2013). Data Mining Practical Machine Learning Tools and Techniques, Morgan Kaufmann.Zhen, Ethical issues in Web Data Mining. Available athttp//blog.nus.edu.sg/group208/2012/11/25/ethical-issues-in-web-data-mining/ Accessed 01 March 2017.

Alternatives to Custodial Sentences for Female Offenders

Alternatives to Custodial Sentences for Fe manlike OffendersThis discourse questions the amplify in the womanly soulfulness prison ho phthisis house house race in new-made geezerhood. It then goes on to enlist around causalitys a codst imprisoning wo men, flavour at the alternatives to tutelar execrations, and the early(prenominal) and upcoming policy. It suggests that alternatives should be flip all all all overed oer and above protective sentences as these whitethorn be much grab for the hire of women.(2) IntroductionIn the last near years on that point has been a widespread occupy for the rime of women that atomic number 18 put behind bars. amidst 1993 and 2003, the fe antheral population make upd by al close 200% . numerous live with concerns ab step up this, for physical exertion, The Howard partnership for revengeable domesticate published its leniency to the join Nations Congress on Crime Prevention, expressing drab concern at t he increase in the use of prison for women and the added worrys they face in duress. The Howard League for penal Reform research shows that 4,394 women were detained in 18prisons in England and Wales on 4 follow out 2005, al roughly treble the number held in 1993. The number of women experiencing prison over the year has increase by al roughly 3,000 as most women atomic number 18 sent to prison for besides short periods. The number of women on shelve has also increased by ab erupt(p) a third.This has meant that womens chains has come under the spotlight for twain the universe and academics alike. In reply to the growing concerns for the unsuitability of custodial sentences for the volume of women in that respect gestate been try go forths to contract alternatives to fetter that atomic number 18 much appropriate.T here has been much concern virtually the hugeer numbers of women existence impris one and only(a)d for several(prenominal) reasons. In the past t here has been a reluctance to see penalisation as sexual activity specific. As Carlen (20023) points outTheories of penalisation atomic number 18 usu wholey anticipate to be grammatical gender-neutral the state punishes, the citizen submits and the legitimacy of the penalisation is debated according to the jurisprudential principles of the meter. alone recently, for fount, there has been increase recognition that the distressing profile of women prisoners is unlike to that of their male counterparts, and the reconstructive need of these women be also different to jail men. In rundown the need of the chel arn of almost of these incarcerated women ar beginning to be recognised.This dissertation w dizzy look at some of these trends that argon of growing concern, first of all outlining the chief(prenominal) reasons why the young-bearing(prenominal) prison population has increased in recent years, and then looking at how custodial sentences ar hostile for the call for of women. It give then go on to consider a few alternatives to shackles that whitethorn be to a greater extent appropriate. In doing so it is requisite to take a look at the policy in this sector to practice the troubles and make recommendations for the future.Pat Carlen puts forward some questions that ar asked to each one time womens imprisonment comes under the spotlight Is it necessary to sends some(prenominal) women to prison? ar women tempered differently to men by the police, the courts and the prisons? why are so many an(prenominal) deplorable, b want and rationally ill women in prison? And so on (Carlen, 1998 2). This dissertation volition seek to research some of these questions and the issues that surround them. It aims to show that there is a broad variation in the midst of the stick body of womens imprisonment and the need justy of the women cosmos sent to them, and in doing so provide examine the alternatives to custodial sentences for women.It is historic to consider gender differential coefficients at this point. Carlen (2002 7) puts forward the question Are women penalise differently to men? and in answer suggests that there are half dozen main bodies of books that onrush to answer this question. Firstly, there is the diachronic books which revolve aboutes on the quantity and quality of womens penalisations Secondly, sociological writings which places the see of womens penalty within the wider frame written report of train, arguing that women step up slight frequently in the courts as they are to a greater extent closely restrain by informal controls of family, concomitantory, fashion, men and medicine (Carlen, 2002 7).Socio-legal studies endeavour to establish whether women are sentenced more or slight harshly than men criminological studies attempt to as plastered and assess the quality of the confinement ownd by imprisoned women. Also a campaigning literature is identified by C arlen, which argues forward variety of reasons that women start a harsher penalty than that of their male counterparts and, the literature that has responded to this rebuke, for example that pass ond by the official office site Inspectorates.It merchantman be ascertained from the wide revue of this literature that firm evidence that plunk fors the f round that women are more severely punished than men is difficult to find, as Carlen points out, In sum, the findings of all this research and scholarship suggest that there is no quick statistical evidence to get claims that women are sentenced more harshly than men.(Carlen, 2002 7). In growth to this it would be awkward to ascertain the gender- preconceived idea as affiliate from the bias relating to class or race. in time, based on the demographic characteristics of imprisoned women, Carlen (2002 8) argues that although the mass of women are treated more leniently by the guilty arbiter system (for example see Lederman and Gels Thorpe, 1997, quoted in Carlen, 2002 8), certain women, in limited those who stick out been brought up in the states institutional care, start out passing(a) lifestyles, rent their own children already in state guardianship, are life-time out with family and male-related domesticity, or are members of the of ethnical minority groups-are more credibly to hold through and through the immoral rightness system and end up in prison. Although this argument does non contend with the argument that women are treated more leniently with men, it complements the argument of Lederman and Gels ThorpeThe likelihood that womanly offenders whitethorn overall receive more lenient interposition than males does not rule out the casualty that somebody women receive unusually harsh sermon. (Lederman and Gels Thorpe, 1994 4)As burn be seen from the following chapter, gender influences are evident within all aspects of venomous offence, immorality and the unconventional re feree system. Gender stereotypes jakes inform decisions as to whether person has pull a offensive, whether they should be prosecuted and run aground guilty for a curse, and indeed, gender coins how a person might be punished and how this whitethorn affect the pitiful and society. sinful legality tends to render women as passive victims, and when they await as deplorable they nookie either treated as irrational, acting under external concomitantors or as unfeminine monsters (Nicolson, 200025). contempt this, its only recently that these gender dimensions dedicate been considered, as Nicolson points out, tralatitiously vicious law has been analysed and taught as if its rules are gender fraud and as if the gender of both the victims and perpetrators of crime is irrelevant(from Nicolson and Bobbings, 2002 1).This gender-blind climax to crime and the pitiful evaluator system has now been recognised and analysed by libbers and criminologists alike. discombobulat e (2002) urges that it is signifi enkindlet for both feminist scholars and students of criminal law to engage with the issue of punishment, as this declare oneselfs a key to understanding substantive law issues, in the past, she suggests, literature has center onsed on women who kill, for example, merely has failed to put forward a soupcon for whether these women should be punished and how. This paper will attempt to make up this imbalance.(3) Explanations of the growing in the young-bearing(prenominal) prison PopulationIn looking at the explanations underlying the steep increase in womens imprisonment in recent years, the study underinterpreted by Carlen(1998) tenders some useful points to consider. She put in several opinions in her study which see to add understanding. A distaff Prison Governor suggested that the number of prison sentences are higher disrespect no signifi give noticet rise in the number of reported crime referable to several reasons for the first t ime, she suggests that it could be andante-feminist approach that says, wholesome, if you women want equality, youve got to take it secondly, it could be over collect to the rising pressure on women in society to head financially without a partner calculateing to more crime be attached thirdly, she suggests, it could be that women in the past get to been more credibly to go down the route of cosmos admitted to a mental hospital which has suffered cuts in funding. A Prison Officer put forward that women are compose being sent to prison for trivial crimes, which is supported by prisoners comments.Carlen summarises the results apt(p) as thus (1) more women are committing knockdown-dragout crimes (2) more women who would not befuddle previously gone to prison are dismissal payable to increasing involvement with drugs (3)more black women are going to prison so racism whitethorn be the key or (4)prison is being utilize to incarcerate the same neighborly categories for wo men that it invariably has the destitute, the most manifestly gender deviant, and the mentally disturbed but the numbers of women presenting themselves in these categories flummox increased with growing stintingal inequality (Carlen, 1998 51). some other explanation is that women are bonny more barbarian, indeed the comparison of womanish prisoners under sentence for crimes of force against the person was indeed (at 20 per cent) only two present slight than the proportion of male prisoners. Fletcher (1975, in Carlen, 1998 52) supports this feeling It is undoubtedly the cause that the direct of convictions of violence against the person has increased among women. However, he also points out that, the egg-producing(prenominal) prison population has risen steeply whilst thoughtful convictions impart in reality fallen suggesting that this whitethorn be due to longer sentences being served. As will be seen posterior, it is much more promising that it is the increas e in more punitive sentencing for trivial crimes that is more apparent to offer an explanation.It is executable that racism is the key to increases in the womanly prison population, as the Home Office (1997) points outIn June 1996, there were 10,200 pile from ethnic minorities in Prison Service establishments. Ethnic minorities postinged for 18percent of the male prison population and 24 per cent of the effeminate person population compared with 6 per cent of the male and effeminate populations of England and Wales (From Carlen, 1998 54).However, there may be other reasons underlying these numbers, and its inconceivable to disentangle issues of race, gender, and other forms of inequality. Unfortunately there is no time here to consider all the concerns that this issue deserves, except to say that it may be contributory factor to the increased numbers of imprisoned women, but this view is highly contentious.Carlen (1998 54) suggests that when women are being considered for tougher sentence preferably than a milder sentence, they may be escalated up the tariff towards the custodial end more pronto than a male purely because the turn tail of non-custodial facilities for women is narrower. However, although all these concepts will serve in some right smart to increase the numbers of womanish offenders part custodial sentences, the most likely and supported factor is the economic and amicable status of women despite exaggerated claims about more and more violent and colony driven female offenders, it appears that there is consensus amongst most analysts and commentators that the steep increases in the numbers of women received into British Prisons in the1990s keep outstrip be explained by the increased numbers of women in the social categories of economic need and social deprivation who pack handed-downly been more under attack(predicate) to imprisonment, and by the increased punitiveness of the courts towards female offenders in general. (Carlen, 1998 56)(4) Reasons Against Imprisoning WomenThe Feminist ResponseIn looking at the feminist response to criminal justice for women, firstly it is grand to look at the general mildews of punishment that exist today. put off (2000 51) points out that traditionally there are three main theories of punishment retribution, intimidation and rehabilitation. The retribution model is concerned with the notion of vengeance, and balancing the punishment with the take aim of harm inflicted on the victim. Advocates of this just desert approach(Clarkson and Keating ) claim that it ensures correspondence amid crime and punishment, promises limited punishment, helps reduce sentencing disparity and protects rights by restoring due process.However this approach is open to criticism due to its lack of term of soulfulness factors much(prenominal) as poverty, unemployment, inequality and gender, assuming that every individual is an sovereign member of society. Similarly, the deter rence model tensenesses on rational main(a) action through its aim of discouraging crime through the little terror and example of punishment, which like the latter model does not take into account individual differences, including the responsibility held by criminals.Fox (2000 53) suggests that the rehabilitation model appears more vivid from a feminist perspective as it aims to secure compliance through inner positive motivation on the part of the individual(Clarkson and Keating ) and its focus on understanding rather than condemning the offender, through treatment. Although it has been debated as to whether this model kitty be characterised as punishment, but as Fox recognises, treatment point approaches puke involve punitive interventions under the guise of treatment.The criticism of this approach is similar to that of incapacitation guess whish aims for protective sentencing. By direful longer or more severe punishments thee criminal may move unable(p) to commit more crimes. Fox discusses that because of the special privations which prison sentences may inflict on female prisoners, it this may save greater advert on women. and so it is suggested that a new rationale for punishment that differs from the traditional frameworks to encompass gender differences is needed.Howe takes the view that the definition of punishment needs to be expanded to incorporate broader social control mechanisms, son that it, enables us to project links between two fine projects the masculinise one, of analysing the ontogeny of punishment regimes in the context of the States power to punish, and the feminist one, of mapping the differential regard of disciplinary power on lived female bodies.(Howe, 1994, see compose 5). This focus on the body as a means of criticising models of punishment is classifiable of some writers, for example, Wait who argues that the body is a vehicle for control, in regards to examples such(prenominal) as electronic tagging, the get o utd time interval of parents from children and spouses from each other, as well as residential district function and probation orders that acquire the body to work in particular ways, he comments thatThe pain inflicted upon it may be less direct, the hybrid it makes and traces leaves less visible but the exercise of coercive subdue over the body and a recognition of the anguish it is capable of experiencing are belt up at the heart of punishment(Wait, 1996, from Fox, 2000 58).Fox puts forward that this send away apply to other types of punishment too, namely, forced treatment for drug and alcohol dependency and the use of boot camps, chain gangs and capital punishment in the US. center on the body, she suggests, can make the diverse ways in which women are placed under surveillance, disciplined and punished more apparent, and that practices such as imprisoning pregnant women, handcuffing labouring women, separating fuck offs from their children and strip searching tend t o force citizenry to confront the reality of punishment. As can be seen a focus on the body can take forward feminist perspectives in its struggle against the patriarchal constitution of the States criminal justice system.Although greater numbers of women continue to receive custodial sentences, proportionately more women offenders in both the US and Receive probation, or authoritative or conditional charges. Pat Carlen(1985, quoted in Fox, 2000 60) puts forward a voltage reason for thisthe majority of women in trouble are much more likely to be in receipt of medical, psychiatric or eudaimonia commandment than caught up in the machinery of criminal justice, which accounts for the courts lot to require social and medical reports for female offenders, particularly where the offence is supernatural or violentThe Specific Needs of WomenThis section will adumbrate some of the identified needs of female offenders focussing on those needs associated with family and mental health issues.FamilyIt could be argued that womens identity as get under ones skins is critical in sentencing practice. Fox (200062) argues that those women who conform to the traditional stereotype as mothers can more easily avoid being labelled as criminal, whilst conversely, women who do not conform to this stereotype compare unfavourably, and women who are judged to fails wives or mothers, such as young single women who commit offences as members as gangs, for example, are treated relatively harshly.This highlights how gender determinations can gift an take on criminal procedure in general, and sentencing. The Home Office report offered by Lederman and Gels Thorpe suffer that this is the case, reporting that the degree to which a female offender conforms to traditional gender fibres, especially regarding her marital status, is the most influential factoring how she is regarded by the courts. Therefore it seems that the discrimination faced by women in society carries over to the criminal justice system.Carlen (1998 74) in her study looked at the different experience of women in prison compared to that of their male counter parts. She raise that the most reminiscent response related to womens role within the family both in basis of ideology and function. This was described mostly in foothold of womens role as mothers, although, also included their roles of primary care-giver to other family members, including the dependency that men had upon them. For example, male staff recognised that a powerful ruffle of biologic ties, emotional alinements and family ideologies can affect a womans prison experience (Carlen, 199874).One answerer in particular commented that, in 99 per cent of cases when a man comes to prison he has the intimacy that his children are being looked after and the rent will be stipendiary by the DSS, however women tend to lose their homes, and lots their children to foster care. some other(prenominal) commented that the females have a closer bond to their children and it affects them far more.In regards to imprison, one respondent suggested that, If a woman has a rape objet dart she is on remand in custody, social services will be contacted and the child would be taken off her. Shes being denied the right to bond with that baby at such a vital stage Another problem that we have is that if they are sentenced we initiate the procedure for applying for a draw and mollycoddle Unit, but there are not enough mother and baby spaces for them to go to. (A Prison Officer, from Carlen, 1998 79)Contemporary Criminal jurist policies can have a detrimental equal on families, in terms of both the impact of a mothers imprisonment on their children and the impact upon the mothers. With the striking increase in numbers of women serving custodial sentences the effect that this can have on the children that a proportion of these women have needs to be taken into consideration. Ideology that contends with the view that fema le offenders do not deserve privileges such as regular contact with their children has a lack of regard of the fact that this also penalizes the children, Clarke (1995) refers to these children as the unseen victims of a mothers incarceration.Although removing a child from the criminality associated with their mothers is often considered to be in the best interests of the child, this removals harmful in itself. Snyder-Joy and Carlo (1998), in their review of some of the research carried out that look at the do of the child, found that incarcerating mothers may allege serious negative effects for the children.They found that the forceful interval and lack of close contact between mother and child may cause psychological and behavioral problems for the children, such as aggression, poor schooling performance, attention deficit, anger, poor social skills, depression, and sleep disruptions. In addendum to this, children of incarcerated parents celestial orbit risk of also ending up in the criminal justice system. In fact, Barnhill and Dressers 1991 research notes that, children of inmates are quint to sestet times more likely than their peers to become incarcerated themselves (Snyder-Joy and Carlo, 1998 132).It can be rough to ascertain whether it is the actual imprisonment of mothers that has these effects, rather than say, the economic and social factors that may also affect their mothers, or the general way in which they have been brought up, however the research findings should not be disregarded and the dominance effects of custodial sentences of mothers on children should sure enough be considered when debating womens imprisonment.Gabel (1992, taken from Snyder-Joy and Carlo, 1998 132) sums up this situation for some prisoners and their familiesSeparations are likely to have been preceded by family turmoil, conflict, and dysfunction in many cases relative to family functioning in inherent families some(prenominal) of these families and child ren are vulnerable even more to go on problems and behavioural disorders incidental tithe separation itself. The latter may increase social, financial, or ad hominem difficulties with which already dysfunctional families cannot cope.As can be seen, the act of removing children from their mothers my produce social, personalized and emotional problems for the child. In addition to this the problems that originate during the imprisonment of their mothers, and that may exist prior, will be further increase if the family relationship between mother and child is so damaged that the child may be looked after by the state after release. This in itself is associated with affect the personal social and emotional development of children and where possible should be avoided where possible. The suggestions make later when alternatives to imprisonment are considered.Imprisonment has adverse effects on women who are mothers even beyond other considerations that have been do in this paper. It has been found that incarcerated mothers report depression, anxiety and fears about their childrens safety while they are apart, as well as feelings of guilt and inadequacy in addition to concerns about returning to the family structure that existed prior to imprisonment.(Snyder-Joy and Carlo, 1998 135)Punishment is compounded for many female prisoners when they are separated from their children. The majority of incarcerated women are mothers estimates range from 60-80%, and most of these women were providing the primary means of family support prior to imprisonment(research outlined by flurry and Pogrebin, 2001), Rasche (2000) commented that the harshest single aspect of being imprisoned may bath separation of mother and child.Mental HealthThe self-reliance that women are more likely to require psychological assessment is evident in the recommendations made by the Home Office, which urges sentences to pay particular attention to the treatment of female criminals. Feminists ma y argue that this emphasis serves to undermine women, for example Carlen and Worrall argue that the habitual womens body could be perceived as intrinsically abnormal. Menstruation, pregnancy, vaginal birth and the change of life result in hormone imbalance which suggests that the women may be demented at these times (From Fox, 2002 60). However it is argued that this disposition to consider female defendants as medically unsound underpins the trend towards a treatment approach for these women, rather than a custodial sentence which would be deemed as impertinent for their needs. A further consideration of the mental health issues and needs of female offenders can be seen later.The Efficacy of PrisonCarlen (1998 102) found that overcrowding in prisons meant that the system was unable to care in force(p)ly for those inmates that pose special problems of need, peril and risk. In fact it was found that the general consensus of staff working in the prison service was that the most pr isons can hope to achieve, due to the combination of overcrowding and increasingly restricting security measures, was damage limitation rather than equipping inmates to lead great and useful lives when they are discharged. (Carlen, 1998 149)the incapacitation effect of current levels of imprisonment is not great A general increase in the use of imprisonment, either by increasing the proportion sentenced to custody, increasing the sentences imposed or increasing the proportion of the sentence that offenders spend in custody, would not affect crime levels by any substantial amount. (Tarring, 1993, quoted in Prison Reform Trust1993, in Carlen, 1998151)The problem with arguing towards a reduction in custodial sentencing for female offenders is that it can be considered a sexist response that is discordant to the attempt of the criminal justice system to treat all equally, and encouraging women to be unlawful without fear of punitive sentence. However, supported by other researchers, Carlen offers a response to this question. She argues that firstly, the economic, ideological and political conditions in which women break the law are different to those in which man commit crime secondly, the logic of sentencing tends to be root in oppressive and outmoded assumptions about the proper role of women in society and thirdly, that women who appear before the courts usually will have been theme to informal and anti-social controls (not suffered by their male counterparts) which would already have bear on their opportunities for full citizenship, meaning they suffer a double regulation(Carlen,1998 153).Carlen recommends that unless women have committed very serious crimes, or pose a danger to open which means they must be incarcerated as a amour of public protection, no good can come from imprisoning women, Almost certainly they will require help of some description but always of a kind that no prison can provide. Imprisonment can only damage them further, and make them more likely to break the law in the future. (Carlen, 199 153)In response to evidence and theories presented by researchers and academics the Government have stated that, Imprisonment is not the most effective punishment for most crime. storage area should be silent as punishment for very serious offences. (Home Office 1988, taken from Worrall, 1997 28). However, as can be seen later, government policy has not always reflected this view.(5) Alternatives to Custodial Sentences for Female OffendersAs can be seen from the theory and evidence put forward previously, there is increasing support for the majority of custodial sentences for female offenders to be replaced with an alternative method of punishment or control. Alternatives to imprisonment may also supply a come apart medium for therapeutic intervention than the current prison system. The Howard League for Penal Reform leads the way in alternative thinking in the Criminal justness SystemThe Howard League for Penal Ref orm is today recommending that prison custody for women should be virtually abolished so that only those women who are convicted of serious and violent offences and who represent a continuing danger to the public should be held in custody. For other women offenders society based interventions that make amends for the abuse do and encourage women to change their lives offer the best change of creating a safer society. (Frances Cooke, talker for The Howard League, 2005).In the main, alternatives to custodial sentences involve a type of community punishment, in the form of probation, fines, and electronic tagging, for example, or specialist units. Some examples of these alternatives, and their use for female offenders, will be looked at in this chapter. Firstly, though it is consequential to happen upon the main barriers to community punishment alternatives, in order to gain a better understanding of the more specific sentences.Worrall identifies many obstacles to community punis hment (1997 13).Firstly she identifies the obstacle of public and media perception that imprisonment is the only way to punish people accordingly, with other punishments viewed as inferior. Secondly, there is the obstacle of below the belt or inconsistent sentencing, in that community sentences tend to be reserved for those who can pay, or deemed to be able to benefit from supervision which leaves certain disadvantaged groups in prison.Thirdly, there is the concept of net-widening based on the assumption that alternatives to custody will, rather than defer offenders form prison, draw more people into the criminal justice system that may otherwise have been divert to another agency. Fourthly, is the problem of enforcement, it is much easier not to comply with on-custodial sentences, and some conceptualise that without the sustenance of threats of incarceration, community alternatives are not viable. However, despite these drawbacks it is important to consider the benefits of us ing alternatives to custody.Electronic MonitoringSections 12 and 13 of the Criminal Justice mo (1991) introduced electronic tagging as a method of supervision and control and could offer a valuable commodity in the criminal justice system. However, electronic tagging systems have had a quite a number of kickoff up problems, and in some cases offenders under this system have request to be put into custody as this was deemed preferable, despite Tom Stacey, develop of the Offenders give chase Association suggesting that opposition to tagging was based on wilful ignorance of the dire nature of prison conditions (Worrall, 1997 31). The tagging system was criticised for leaving families with very little income due to the restraints upon offenders, and for malfunctioning. fit to the Prison Reform Trust (1990) by January 1990, only 46 defendants had been tagged on contracts which approach the tax payer 564,706. Of these 24 had breached the conditions of their bail, been arrested for further offences, or absconded (Worrall, 1997 32).However, if these problems can be overcome and the system used effectively, electronic observe may be recognised as a flexile and cost effective alternative to prison, which may be appropriate for female offenders who have been convicted of less serious, less violent and less harmful crimes. It could provide for effective monitoring and control, whilst being used alongside a broadcast of support and will allow for family and social ties to be retained to a greater degree than imprisonmentSpecial Units for female offenders who are mothersAs can be seen in previous chapters a need for specialist proviso for female offenders with children is widely supported. In many cases affine, probation, or a curfew order, monitored by electronic tagging, for example, may be appropriate, however specialist units may also be successful in overcoming some of the problems associated with incarcerating mothers. These would supply an fortune for fem ale offenders to be punished and monitored without the separation of children from their mothers, whilst also providing suppAlternatives to Custodial Sentences for Female OffendersAlternatives to Custodial Sentences for Female OffendersThis dissertation questions the increase in the female prison population in recent years. It then goes on to outline some reasons against imprisoning women, looking at the alternatives to custodial sentences, and the past and upcoming policy. It suggests that alternatives should be considered over and above custodial sentences as these may be more appropriate for the needs of women.(2) IntroductionIn the last few years there has been a widespread concern for the numbers of women that are imprisoned. Between 1993 and 2003, the female population increased by almost 200% . Many have concerns about this, for example, The Howard League for Penal Reform published its submission to the United Nations Congress on Crime Prevention, expressing serious concern a t the increase in the use of prison for women and the added problems they face in custody. The Howard League for Penal Reform research shows that 4,394 women were detained in 18prisons in England and Wales on 4 March 2005, almost treble the number held in 1993. The number of women experiencing prison over the year has increased by almost 3,000 as most women are sent to prison for only short periods. The number of women on remand has also increased by about a third.This has meant that womens imprisonment has come under the spotlight for both the public and academics alike. In response to the growing concerns for the unsuitability of custodial sentences for the majority of women there have been attempts to find alternatives to imprisonment that are more appropriate.There has been much concern about the greater numbers of women being imprisoned for several reasons. In the past there has been a reluctance to see punishment as gender specific. As Carlen (20023) points outTheories of puni shment are usually expected to be gender-neutral the state punishes, the citizen submits and the legitimacy of the punishment is debated according to the jurisprudential principles of the time.But recently, for example, there has been increasing recognition that the criminal profile of women prisoners is different to that of their male counterparts, and the rehabilitative needs of these women are also different to imprisoned men. In addition the needs of the children of some of these incarcerated women are beginning to be recognised.This dissertation will look at some of these issues that are of growing concern, firstly outlining the main reasons why the female prison population has increased in recent years, and then looking at how custodial sentences are inappropriate for the needs of women. It will then go on to consider a few alternatives to custody that may be more appropriate. In doing so it is necessary to take a look at the policy in this area to establish the problems and m ake recommendations for the future.Pat Carlen puts forward some questions that are asked each time womens imprisonment comes under the spotlight Is it necessary to sends many women to prison? Are women treated differently to men by the police, the courts and the prisons? Why are so many poor, black and mentally ill women in prison? And so on (Carlen, 1998 2). This dissertation will attempt to explore some of these questions and the issues that surround them. It aims to show that there is a vast disparity between the present system of womens imprisonment and the needs of the women being sent to them, and in doing so will examine the alternatives to custodial sentences for women.It is important to consider gender differentials at this point. Carlen (2002 7) puts forward the question Are women punished differently to men? and in response suggests that there are six main bodies of literature that attempt to answer this question. Firstly, there is the historical literature which focuses on the quantity and quality of womens punishments Secondly, sociological literature which places the experience of womens punishment within the wider framework of control, arguing that women appear less frequently in the courts as they are more closely constrained by informal controls of family, factory, fashion, men and medicine (Carlen, 2002 7).Socio-legal studies endeavour to establish whether women are sentenced more or less harshly than men criminological studies attempt to ascertain and assess the quality of the confinement experienced by imprisoned women. Also a campaigning literature is identified by Carlen, which argues fore variety of reasons that women receive a harsher punishment than that of their male counterparts and, the literature that has responded to this criticism, for example that provided by the official Home Office Inspectorates.It can be ascertained from the wide review of this literature that firm evidence that supports the fact that women are more severely punished than men is difficult to find, as Carlen points out, In sum, the findings of all this research and scholarship suggest that there is no strong statistical evidence to support claims that women are sentenced more harshly than men.(Carlen, 2002 7). In addition to this it would be awkward to ascertain the gender-bias as separate from the bias relating to class or race.However, based on the demographic characteristics of imprisoned women, Carlen (2002 8) argues that although the majority of women are treated more leniently by the criminal justice system (for example see Lederman and Gels Thorpe, 1997, quoted in Carlen, 2002 8), certain women, in particular those who have been brought up in the states institutional care, have transient lifestyles, have their own children already in state guardianship, are living out with family and male-related domesticity, or are members of the of ethnic minority groups-are more likely to proceed through the criminal justice system and end up i n prison. Although this argument does not contend with the argument that women are treated more leniently with men, it complements the argument of Lederman and Gels ThorpeThe likelihood that female offenders may overall receive more lenient treatment than males does not rule out the possibility that individual women receive unusually harsh treatment. (Lederman and Gels Thorpe, 1994 4)As can be seen from the following chapter, gender influences are evident within all aspects of crime, criminality and the criminal justice system. Gender stereotypes can inform decisions as to whether person has committed a crime, whether they should be prosecuted and found guilty for a crime, and indeed, gender affects how a person might be punished and how this may affect the criminal and society. Criminal law tends to render women as passive victims, and when they appear as criminal they can either treated as irrational, acting under external factors or as unfeminine monsters (Nicolson, 200025). Desp ite this, its only recently that these gender dimensions have been considered, as Nicolson points out, Traditionally criminal law has been analysed and taught as if its rules are gender blind and as if the gender of both the victims and perpetrators of crime is irrelevant(from Nicolson and Bobbings, 2002 1).This gender-blind approach to crime and the criminal justice system has now been recognised and analysed by feminists and criminologists alike. Fox (2002) urges that it is crucial for both feminist scholars and students of criminal law to engage with the issue of punishment, as this offers a key to understanding substantive law issues, in the past, she suggests, literature has focussed on women who kill, for example, but has failed to put forward a suggestion for whether these women should be punished and how. This paper will attempt to redress this imbalance.(3) Explanations of the Increase in the Female Prison PopulationIn looking at the explanations underlying the steep increa se in womens imprisonment in recent years, the study undertaken by Carlen(1998) offers some useful points to consider. She accumulated several opinions in her study which serve to add understanding. A female Prison Governor suggested that the number of prison sentences are higher despite no significant rise in the number of reported crime due to several reasons firstly, she suggests that it could be andante-feminist approach that says, well, if you women want equality, youve got to take it secondly, it could be due to the rising pressure on women in society to cope financially without a partner leading to more crime being committed thirdly, she suggests, it could be that women in the past have been more likely to go down the route of being admitted to a mental hospital which has suffered cuts in funding. A Prison Officer put forward that women are still being sent to prison for trivial crimes, which is supported by prisoners comments.Carlen summarises the responses given as thus (1) more women are committing violent crimes (2) more women who would not have previously gone to prison are going due to increasing involvement with drugs (3)more black women are going to prison so racism may be the key or (4)prison is being used to incarcerate the same social categories for women that it always has the destitute, the most obviously gender deviant, and the mentally disturbed but the numbers of women presenting themselves in these categories have increased with growing economic inequality (Carlen, 1998 51).Another explanation is that women are becoming more violent, indeed the proportion of female prisoners under sentence for crimes of violence against the person was indeed (at 20 per cent) only two present less than the proportion of male prisoners. Fletcher (1975, in Carlen, 1998 52) supports this view It is undoubtedly the case that the level of convictions of violence against the person has increased among women. However, he also points out that, the female priso n population has risen steeply whilst serious convictions have actually fallen suggesting that this may be due to longer sentences being served. As will be seen later, it is much more likely that it is the increase in more punitive sentencing for trivial crimes that is more likely to offer an explanation.It is possible that racism is the key to increases in the female prison population, as the Home Office (1997) points outIn June 1996, there were 10,200 people from ethnic minorities in Prison Service establishments. Ethnic minorities accounted for 18percent of the male prison population and 24 per cent of the female population compared with 6 per cent of the male and female populations of England and Wales (From Carlen, 1998 54).However, there may be other reasons underlying these numbers, and its impossible to disentangle issues of race, gender, and other forms of inequality. Unfortunately there is no time here to consider all the concerns that this issue deserves, except to say t hat it may be contributory factor to the increased numbers of imprisoned women, but this view is highly contentious.Carlen (1998 54) suggests that when women are being considered for tougher sentence rather than a milder sentence, they may be escalated up the tariff towards the custodial end more quickly than a male purely because the range of non-custodial facilities for women is narrower. However, although all these concepts will serve in some way to increase the numbers of female offenders serving custodial sentences, the most likely and supported factor is the economic and social status of women despite exaggerated claims about increasingly violent and addiction driven female offenders, it appears that there is consensus amongst most analysts and commentators that the steep increases in the numbers of women received into British Prisons in the1990s can best be explained by the increased numbers of women in the social categories of economic need and social deprivation who have tr aditionally been more vulnerable to imprisonment, and by the increased punitiveness of the courts towards female offenders in general. (Carlen, 1998 56)(4) Reasons Against Imprisoning WomenThe Feminist ResponseIn looking at the feminist response to criminal justice for women, firstly it is important to look at the general models of punishment that exist today. Fox (2000 51) points out that traditionally there are three main theories of punishment retribution, deterrence and rehabilitation. The retribution model is concerned with the notion of vengeance, and balancing the punishment with the level of harm inflicted on the victim. Advocates of this just desert approach(Clarkson and Keating ) claim that it ensures proportionality between crime and punishment, promises limited punishment, helps reduce sentencing disparity and protects rights by restoring due process.However this approach is open to criticism due to its lack of consideration of individual factors such as poverty, unempl oyment, inequality and gender, assuming that every individual is an autonomous member of society. Similarly, the deterrence model focuses on rational autonomous action through its aim of discouraging crime through the threat and example of punishment, which like the latter model does not take into account individual differences, including the responsibility held by criminals.Fox (2000 53) suggests that the rehabilitation model appears more promising from a feminist perspective as it aims to secure conformity through inner positive motivation on the part of the individual(Clarkson and Keating ) and its focus on understanding rather than condemning the offender, through treatment. Although it has been debated as to whether this model can be characterised as punishment, but as Fox recognises, treatment oriented approaches can involve punitive interventions under the guise of treatment.The criticism of this approach is similar to that of incapacitation theory whish aims for protective s entencing. By imposing longer or more severe punishments thee criminal may become unable to commit more crimes. Fox discusses that because of the special privations which prison sentences may inflict on female prisoners, it this may have greater impact on women. Therefore it is suggested that a new rationale for punishment that differs from the traditional frameworks to encompass gender differences is needed.Howe takes the view that the definition of punishment needs to be expanded to incorporate broader social control mechanisms, son that it, enables us to forge links between two critical projects the masculinise one, of analysing the emergence of punishment regimes in the context of the States power to punish, and the feminist one, of mapping the differential impact of disciplinary power on lived female bodies.(Howe, 1994, see footnote 5). This focus on the body as a means of criticising models of punishment is typical of some writers, for example, Wait who argues that the body is a vehicle for control, in regards to examples such as electronic tagging, the forced separation of parents from children and spouses from each other, as well as community service and probation orders that require the body to work in particular ways, he comments thatThe pain inflicted upon it may be less direct, the mark it makes and traces leaves less visible but the exercise of coercive discipline over the body and a recognition of the anguish it is capable of experiencing are still at the heart of punishment(Wait, 1996, from Fox, 2000 58).Fox puts forward that this can apply to other types of punishment too, namely, forced treatment for drug and alcohol dependency and the use of boot camps, chain gangs and capital punishment in the US. Focus on the body, she suggests, can make the diverse ways in which women are placed under surveillance, disciplined and punished more apparent, and that practices such as imprisoning pregnant women, handcuffing labouring women, separating mothers from their children and strip searching tend to force people to confront the reality of punishment. As can be seen a focus on the body can take forward feminist perspectives in its struggle against the patriarchal nature of the States criminal justice system.Although greater numbers of women continue to receive custodial sentences, proportionally more women offenders in both the US and Receive probation, or absolute or conditional charges. Pat Carlen(1985, quoted in Fox, 2000 60) puts forward a potential reason for thisthe majority of women in trouble are much more likely to be in receipt of medical, psychiatric or welfare regulation than caught up in the machinery of criminal justice, which accounts for the courts readiness to require social and medical reports for female offenders, particularly where the offence is unnatural or violentThe Specific Needs of WomenThis section will outline some of the identified needs of female offenders focussing on those needs associated with fami ly and mental health issues.FamilyIt could be argued that womens identity as mothers is critical in sentencing practice. Fox (200062) argues that those women who conform to the traditional stereotype as mothers can more easily avoid being labelled as criminal, whilst conversely, women who do not conform to this stereotype compare unfavourably, and women who are judged to fails wives or mothers, such as young single women who commit offences as members as gangs, for example, are treated relatively harshly.This highlights how gender roles can have an effect on criminal procedure in general, and sentencing. The Home Office report offered by Lederman and Gels Thorpe confirm that this is the case, reporting that the degree to which a female offender conforms to traditional gender roles, especially regarding her marital status, is the most influential factoring how she is regarded by the courts. Therefore it seems that the discrimination faced by women in society carries over to the crimi nal justice system.Carlen (1998 74) in her study looked at the different experience of women in prison compared to that of their male counter parts. She found that the most resounding response related to womens role within the family both in terms of ideology and function. This was described mostly in terms of womens role as mothers, although, also included their roles of primary care-giver to other family members, including the dependency that men had upon them. For example, male staff recognised that a powerful mix of biological ties, emotional bonds and family ideologies can affect a womans prison experience (Carlen, 199874).One respondent in particular commented that, in 99 per cent of cases when a man comes to prison he has the knowledge that his children are being looked after and the rent will be paid by the DSS, however women tend to lose their homes, and often their children to foster care. Another commented that the females have a closer bond to their children and it affec ts them far more.In regards to remand, one respondent suggested that, If a woman has a baby while she is on remand in custody, social services will be contacted and the baby would be taken off her. Shes being denied the right to bond with that baby at such a vital stage Another problem that we have is that if they are sentenced we initiate the procedure for applying for a Mother and Baby Unit, but there are not enough mother and baby spaces for them to go to. (A Prison Officer, from Carlen, 1998 79)Contemporary Criminal Justice policies can have a detrimental impact on families, in terms of both the impact of a mothers imprisonment on their children and the impact upon the mothers. With the striking increase in numbers of women serving custodial sentences the effect that this can have on the children that a proportion of these women have needs to be taken into consideration. Ideology that contends with the view that female offenders do not deserve privileges such as regular contact with their children has a lack of regard of the fact that this also penalizes the children, Clarke (1995) refers to these children as the unseen victims of a mothers incarceration.Although removing a child from the criminality associated with their mothers is often considered to be in the best interests of the child, this removals harmful in itself. Snyder-Joy and Carlo (1998), in their review of some of the research carried out that look at the effects of the child, found that incarcerating mothers may produce serious negative effects for the children.They found that the forcible separation and lack of close contact between mother and child may cause psychological and behavioural problems for the children, such as aggression, poor school performance, attention deficit, anger, poor social skills, depression, and sleep disruptions. In addition to this, children of incarcerated parents area risk of also ending up in the criminal justice system. In fact, Barnhill and Dressers 1991 rese arch notes that, children of inmates are five to six times more likely than their peers to become incarcerated themselves (Snyder-Joy and Carlo, 1998 132).It can be hard to ascertain whether it is the actual imprisonment of mothers that has these effects, rather than say, the economic and social factors that may also affect their mothers, or the general way in which they have been brought up, however the research findings should not be disregarded and the potential effects of custodial sentences of mothers on children should certainly be considered when debating womens imprisonment.Gabel (1992, taken from Snyder-Joy and Carlo, 1998 132) sums up this situation for some prisoners and their familiesSeparations are likely to have been preceded by family turmoil, conflict, and dysfunction in many cases relative to family functioning in intact families Many of these families and children are vulnerable even more to further problems and behavioural disorders subsequent tithe separation i tself. The latter may increase social, financial, or personal difficulties with which already dysfunctional families cannot cope.As can be seen, the act of removing children from their mothers my produce social, personal and emotional problems for the child. In addition to this the problems that originate during the imprisonment of their mothers, and that may exist prior, will be further compounded if the relationship between mother and child is so damaged that the child may be looked after by the state after release. This in itself is associated with affecting the personal social and emotional development of children and where possible should be avoided where possible. The suggestions made later when alternatives to imprisonment are considered.Imprisonment has adverse effects on women who are mothers even beyond other considerations that have been made in this paper. It has been found that incarcerated mothers report depression, anxiety and fears about their childrens safety while they are apart, as well as feelings of guilt and inadequacy in addition to concerns about returning to the family structure that existed prior to imprisonment.(Snyder-Joy and Carlo, 1998 135)Punishment is compounded for many female prisoners when they are separated from their children. The majority of incarcerated women are mothers estimates range from 60-80%, and most of these women were providing the primary means of family support prior to imprisonment(research outlined by Dodge and Pogrebin, 2001), Rasche (2000) commented that the harshest single aspect of being imprisoned may bathe separation of mother and child.Mental HealthThe assumption that women are more likely to require psychological assessment is evident in the recommendations made by the Home Office, which urges sentences to pay particular attention to the treatment of female criminals. Feminists may argue that this emphasis serves to undermine women, for example Carlen and Worrall argue that the normal womens body co uld be perceived as intrinsically abnormal. Menstruation, pregnancy, childbirth and the menopause result in hormone imbalance which suggests that the women may be imbalanced at these times (From Fox, 2002 60). However it is argued that this disposition to consider female defendants as medically unsound underpins the trend towards a treatment approach for these women, rather than a custodial sentence which would be deemed as inappropriate for their needs. A further consideration of the mental health issues and needs of female offenders can be seen later.The Efficacy of PrisonCarlen (1998 102) found that overcrowding in prisons meant that the system was unable to care effectively for those inmates that pose special problems of need, danger and risk. In fact it was found that the general consensus of staff working in the prison service was that the most prisons can hope to achieve, due to the combination of overcrowding and increasingly restrictive security measures, was damage limitat ion rather than equipping inmates to lead good and useful lives when they are discharged. (Carlen, 1998 149)the incapacitation effect of current levels of imprisonment is not great A general increase in the use of imprisonment, either by increasing the proportion sentenced to custody, increasing the sentences imposed or increasing the proportion of the sentence that offenders spend in custody, would not affect crime levels by any substantial amount. (Tarring, 1993, quoted in Prison Reform Trust1993, in Carlen, 1998151)The problem with arguing towards a reduction in custodial sentencing for female offenders is that it can be considered a sexist response that is discordant to the attempt of the criminal justice system to treat all equally, and encouraging women to be unlawful without fear of punitive sentence. However, supported by other researchers, Carlen offers a response to this question. She argues that firstly, the economic, ideological and political conditions in which women b reak the law are different to those in which man commit crime secondly, the logic of sentencing tends to be rooted in oppressive and outmoded assumptions about the proper role of women in society and thirdly, that women who appear before the courts usually will have been subject to informal and anti-social controls (not suffered by their male counterparts) which would already have affected their opportunities for full citizenship, meaning they suffer a double regulation(Carlen,1998 153).Carlen recommends that unless women have committed very serious crimes, or pose a danger to public which means they must be incarcerated as a matter of public protection, no good can come from imprisoning women, Almost certainly they will require help of some description but always of a kind that no prison can provide. Imprisonment can only damage them further, and make them more likely to break the law in the future. (Carlen, 199 153)In response to evidence and theories presented by researchers and academics the Government have stated that, Imprisonment is not the most effective punishment for most crime. Custody should be reserved as punishment for very serious offences. (Home Office 1988, taken from Worrall, 1997 28). However, as can be seen later, government policy has not always reflected this view.(5) Alternatives to Custodial Sentences for Female OffendersAs can be seen from the theory and evidence put forward previously, there is increasing support for the majority of custodial sentences for female offenders to be replaced with an alternative method of punishment or control. Alternatives to imprisonment may also supply a better medium for therapeutic intervention than the current prison system. The Howard League for Penal Reform leads the way in alternative thinking in the Criminal Justice SystemThe Howard League for Penal Reform is today recommending that prison custody for women should be virtually abolished so that only those women who are convicted of serious and v iolent offences and who represent a continuing danger to the public should be held in custody. For other women offenders community based interventions that make amends for the wrong done and encourage women to change their lives offer the best change of creating a safer society. (Frances Cooke, Speaker for The Howard League, 2005).In the main, alternatives to custodial sentences involve a type of community punishment, in the form of probation, fines, and electronic tagging, for example, or specialist units. Some examples of these alternatives, and their use for female offenders, will be looked at in this chapter. Firstly, though it is important to identify the main barriers to community punishment alternatives, in order to gain a better understanding of the more specific sentences.Worrall identifies many obstacles to community punishment (1997 13).Firstly she identifies the obstacle of public and media perception that imprisonment is the only way to punish people accordingly, with o ther punishments viewed as inferior. Secondly, there is the obstacle of unfair or inconsistent sentencing, in that community sentences tend to be reserved for those who can pay, or deemed to be able to benefit from supervision which leaves certain disadvantaged groups in prison.Thirdly, there is the concept of net-widening based on the assumption that alternatives to custody will, rather than defer offenders form prison, draw more people into the criminal justice system that may otherwise have been diverted to another agency. Fourthly, is the problem of enforcement, it is much easier not to comply with on-custodial sentences, and some believe that without the backup of threats of incarceration, community alternatives are not viable. However, despite these drawbacks it is important to consider the benefits of using alternatives to custody.Electronic MonitoringSections 12 and 13 of the Criminal Justice Act (1991) introduced electronic tagging as a method of supervision and control and could offer a valuable commodity in the criminal justice system. However, electronic tagging systems have had a quite a number of starting up problems, and in some cases offenders under this system have requested to be put into custody as this was deemed preferable, despite Tom Stacey, founder of the Offenders Tag Association suggesting that opposition to tagging was based on wilful ignorance of the appalling nature of prison conditions (Worrall, 1997 31). The tagging system was criticised for leaving families with very little income due to the restraints upon offenders, and for malfunctioning. According to the Prison Reform Trust (1990) by January 1990, only 46 defendants had been tagged on contracts which cost the tax payer 564,706. Of these 24 had breached the conditions of their bail, been arrested for further offences, or absconded (Worrall, 1997 32).However, if these problems can be overcome and the system used effectively, electronic monitoring may be recognised as a flexibl e and cost effective alternative to prison, which may be appropriate for female offenders who have been convicted of less serious, less violent and less harmful crimes. It could provide for effective monitoring and control, whilst being used alongside a programme of support and will allow for family and social ties to be retained to a greater degree than imprisonmentSpecial Units for female offenders who are mothersAs can be seen in previous chapters a need for specialist provision for female offenders with children is widely supported. In many cases affine, probation, or a curfew order, monitored by electronic tagging, for example, may be appropriate, however specialist units may also be successful in overcoming some of the problems associated with incarcerating mothers. These would supply an opportunity for female offenders to be punished and monitored without the separation of children from their mothers, whilst also providing supp

Health Literacy in the USA

wellness Literacy in the USA tender Determinants of wellnessConstantin Vintilescuwellness LiteracyPredicting future trends in any profession cautions calculated review of present and past trends. Over the last two decades, wellness sh be in the joined States has undergone major changes due to simultaneous advances in the fields of wellness randomness and study technology. Advances in health billing and life hope as well begin created dramatic changes. Subsequent gains in life expectancy use up surpassed the gains achieved, between the years 1940 and 1964 with the advent of antibiotics. In fact, recent gains have exceeded that of any other time this century. The life expectancy projections for the rest of this century may turn out to be eventide more real. The raisings of the public about health literacy issues and the rights of the elderly have father another dimension of advancement, along with the rights of patients and minority groups including the physically handi capped.In the unify States, the term literacy is generally defined as the ability to read and handle English (Andrus, 2002). In the 1992 National Adult Literacy Survey (NALS), the U.S. subdivision of preparation (1993) defined literacy as the ability to use printed and pen information to office staff in society, to achieve ones goals, and to develop ones knowledge and potential. Although no precise point defines the difference between literacy and illiteracy, the commonly accepted hold uping definition of what is meant to be literate is the ability to issue and to read, figure, and interpret information written at the eight-grade level or above. health literacy refers to how well an individual sens read, interpret, and comprehend the health information for maintaining an optimum level of wellness. It is an essential aspect for access to health share and health-related services. moderate health literacy leads to poor health outcomes. In fact, literacy skills are a stronge r soothsayer of an individuals health status than age, income, employment status, education level, and racial or ethnic group (Weiss, 2003).wellness literacy is also important for quite a littles maintenance of health and wellness. Health literacy is very important because requires spates to have a more active role in health finish and their management.Based on available statistics over the past twenty years, it is unmistakable that the United States has significant health literacy businesss. Health literacy has been termed the tranquil epidemic, the silent barrier, the silent disability, and the dirty little secret (Conlin Schumann, 2002). In fact, the United States only bedded among the middle of other industrialized nations in most measures of adult literacy and just more of our educators, elected representatives, and social advocates have remained blind on this significant problem (Kogut, 2004).Over the past two decades, the literacy of the American population has bee n the submit of increasing interest and concern by educators as well as by government officials, employers, and the media. Health literacy continues to be a major problem in the United States despite public efforts to address the issue and maturation health literacy training programs. In our society, many people do not possess the basic literacy to navigate the increasingly complex health superintend field. Some people have difficulty in interpreting and comprehending information well enough to be able to fill out pedigree and restitution applications, tax forms, or apply for a drivers license.In the early 1980s, President Reagan launched the National Adult Literacy Initiative, which was followed by the United Nations declaration of 1990 as the International Literacy year (Belton, 1991).In light of the relatively recent attention given to health literacy in the last twenty years, we moldiness acknowledge the efforts of two organizations Literacy Volunteers of America, Inc., a nd Lauback Literacy International that served for many years as advocates for the most marginalized adult populations in United States and nearly the globe. Of particular concern to the health care industry are the amount of consumers who are illiterate, functionally illiterate, or marginally literate. People with poor reading and comprehension skills have disproportionately higher health check costs, incr quietusd occur of hospitalizations, readmissions, and more perceived physical and psychosocial problems than do literae persons (Baker, 1998). Today the health care literacy problem has grave consequences, because patients are expected to assume responsibility for their self-care and health promotion. If people with low literacy abilities cannot fully benefit from given information, then they cannot be expected to maintain their health independently.Computer literacy is also an increasingly hot concern of health literacy. Many health care providers and consumers are relying on computers as educational tools. Those clients who are well educated and career oriented are already likely to own a computer and be computer literate, only those with limited resources, literacy skills, and technological know-how are being left wing behind (Zarcadoolas et al., 2006).Health care providers relied for many years on printed education brochures as a cost-effective way to communicate health instructions with people. For many years, nurses and doctors thought that written materials given to the patients were sufficient to ensure intercommunicate consent for different test or procedures. This way they promoted compliance with handling regimens and discharge instructions. Kessels (2003) pointed out that 40-80% of medical information provided by health professionals is forget immediately, because not only medical terminology is too difficult to view, but also because too much information contributes to poor recall. He also noted that half of the information remembere d is incorrect.Recently the health care providers have begun to realize that if the scientific and technical terminology in education materials are not written at a level and style subdue for their intended audiences, people cannot be expected to be able or willing to accept responsibility for self-care.In improving written health materials and in implementing health education it is important to know the literacy skills of the patients in the community and their families. Nurses play an important role in assessing patients literacy skills because nurses interact more with the patients and their families than the physicians do. The nurses can evaluate the ability of the healthcare client to understand printed health information by assessing the patients comprehension and reading skill level. on that point are specific guidelines for writing effective health education materials and precept strategies for patients and their families. An individuals functional health literacy is like ly to be importantly worse than his or her general literacy skills, because of the more complicated language employ by health care providers.Now that manage care insurance companies are requiring subscribers to take more responsibility for their self-care, poor health literacy can increasingly lead to negative consequences and escalated morbidity, and mortality. People with low health literacy siret have knowledge or are misinformed about the frame and the causes of illnesses. Because they do not have the proper knowledge, they dont understand the relationship between lifestyle factors, like diet and exercise, and wellness .Those people with limited knowledge may not know how to seek care.Health literacy tactics that improve written health materials may include create verbally health materials should have plain language for better understanding and ease of sharing with people.Written health materials should be scientifically accurate and culturally appropriate.If the client does not fluently speaks English, provide the written health information in his/hers native language.If such information is unavailable, and a translator must be employed, it is critical to assess the clients understanding of the written material.Written health information should include pictures for better understanding.Personal electronic devices such as cell phones, tablets, palm pilots, and talking kiosks can be a new method for sending health information to the patients. in advance health providers make a health education brochure, they should also cerebrate alternate methods such as individual, group, organizational, community and mass media.Use a short brochure that presents bottom line information, systematic instructions, and uses pictures with visual cues that cozy up most important information to be absorbed.Health brochures should align health information with recommendations to services, resources, and other available support.Removing the barrier to communication between i ndividuals and health care providers is a good opportunity for nurses to function as facilitators and work in collaboration with other health care professionals for improvement of fibre of care. As Advanced Practice Nurses, it is our mandated responsibility to teach in non-complicated legal injury so our patients can understand an fully benefit from our nursing interventions.ReferencesAndrus, M.R., Roth, M.T. (2002). Health literacy A review. Pharmacotherapy, 22(3), 282- 302.Baker, D. W., Parker,R. M., Williams , M. V, Clark , W. S. (1998). Health literacy and the risk of hospital admission. Journal of Internal Medicine, 13, 791-798.Belton, A. B. (1991).Reading levels of patients in a general hospital. Beta Release, 15 (1), 21-24.California HealthCare Foundation. 2005. Consumers in Health Care The Burden of Choice. Available at http//www.chcf.orgConlin, K. K., Schumann, L. (2002). Literacy in the health care system A study on open heart mathematical process patients. Journal o f the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners, 14 (1), 38-42.Institute of Medicine. 2004. Health Literacy A Prescription to End Confusion. National Academies Press Washington, DC.Kessels, R.P.C. (2003). Patients memory for medical information. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 96,219-22.Kogut, B.(2004).Why adult literacy matters. Pbi Kappa Pbi Forum, 26-28.U.S. Department of Health and humankind Services. Making Health Communication Programs Work. National Cancer Institute Washington, DC.U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2003. Communicating Health Priorities and Strategies for Progress. Washington, DC.Weiss, B. D. (2003). Health literacy A manual(a) for clinicians. Chicago American Medical tie-up and American Medical Association Foundation.Zarcadoolas. C., Pleasant, A. F., Greer, D. J. (2006). Advancing health literacy A framework for understanding and action. San Francisco Jossey Bass.

Impacts of the Protected Disclosures Act 2000 on Nurses

Impacts of the nurse Disclosures figure out 2000 on NursesThis seek willing explore the value Disclosures interpret, 2000, specifically how it impacts books. Aligning the Act with the regulation of transfer will show its importance to nurse overall. The Act will be explained in terms of general content, and purpose including a well-grounded brief background to serve as a rationale. The essay will patch on littleon context, the role of the Ombudsmen, explore how the Act became legislation drawing off on Neil Pugmires story to illustrate, and finally rear an example of the utility of the Act in an everyday scenario. Originally the essay had planned to explore a contrast of past versus future uses of the Act, however, recent research has been unenviable to ascertain in a unfermented Zealand health context, possibly due to the concealing constraints and protections utilised within the Act.The Code of Conduct has been provided by the Nursing Council of New Zealand to create a framework for nurses to work within, while ensuring health professionals be held accountable to a certain standard of c ar. Medical professional answerability is important in maintaining standards and fostering consecrate in the profession to be accountable is to be responsible (Wallis, 2013). Key principles of the Code of Conduct let in respecting privacy and confidentiality, working in smashnership with tolerants, working respectfully with colleagues to hear patients receive the crush possible care, acting with integrity to justify the trust given to nurses, and to maintain public trust and confidence in the nursing profession (Nursing Council of New Zealand, 2012). The Protected Disclosures Act, 2000, provides a safety net, a fabrication and set of solvees for circumstances when nurses or practitioners whom we may work alongside, act after-school(prenominal) the guidelines of the Code of Conduct, and where these acts go away in malpractice or salutary wrong doing. The Protected Disclosures Act protects people who under the act are considered an employee of the brass section. Employee includes former employees, homeworkers, contractors, volunteers and people seconded to the organisation (Protected Disclosures Act, 2000).One of our roles as nurses is to act as advocates for our patients to underwrite they receive the best possible care, are treated in a expressive style that upholds their rights, and ensure they receive the necessary care in a timely manner (Fry Johnstone, 2008). The Protected Disclosures Act, 2000, provides security, protection and appropriate support to an employee who needs to make a complaint of beneficial wrong-doing against their employer ( office of the Ombudsmen, 2014).The Protected Disclosures Act facilitates the disclosure and investigation of matters of serious wrong-doing in, or by an organisation, and protects employees who make these disclosures s5(ab). Employees get under ones skin the right to have their confidentiality upheld during the process and are protected from employers who may try to counter-claim or take legal transactions against the employee who has lodged a disclosure s19. The act aims to focus on serious wrong-doings (outlined in the interpretation section s3), including misuse of funds, acts or omissions which cause a jeopardy to public health, public safety or the environment, any natural action that is unlawful, or acts which may be construed as being oppressive, discriminatory, and grossly slack or constitute gross mismanagement (Protected Disclosures Act, 2000).Between 1999 and 2009 studies conducted in the US, UK and Australia lay out that between 4% and 16% of patients suffer from some kind of maltreat (including permanent disability or death) as a result of unfavourable events occurring while they are in the hospital (Brennan et al 1991 Department of health 2000 Kohn et al 2000 Johnstone, 2009). Between 2004 and 2014 the New Zealand wellness Pract itioners Disciplinary Tribunals (2015) received charges against 344 health professionals most of whom were convicted of professional malpractice. While many organisations have policies and systems to prevent and keep an eye on serious wrongdoing, the people who work within an organisation may sometimes be in the best position to detect problems. Employee witnesses foundation provide a start to a serious investigation (State Services Commission, 2014).In a nursing setting, where there are highschool pressures on staff, accidents canful happen and are usually dealt with promptly. The Protected Disclosures Act can be used in matters which are sensitive in nature and result in serious malpractice. While advocacy for patients, in nurses, is a part of their duties, in many cases when the need arises for advocacy, it can be difficult for the nurse to act. Rest (1984) discusses a process called incorrupt reasoning which is applicable here. moralistic sensitivity speaks to our awarenes s of how our actions affect others. object lesson judgement relates to weighing our actions against that sensitivity. Moral motivation explains how we weigh some values more than others, while moral character is what provides the strength for an individual to carry out a moral action. When a somebody commits a serious wrongdoing, they are making a decision (moral motivation) that puts their values for time or money, for example, higher than their need for patients rights. If a nurse sees these acts and advocates for the patient under the Protected Disclosures Act, this too is moral motivation, with diametrical values. It is for this purpose that the Protected Disclosures Act is aligned closely with the Ombudsmen Act, 1975, the humankind Rights Act, 1993 and the practice Relations Act, 2000.Under the Ombudsmen Act (1975), an ombudsmen may provide information and focus to an employee on any matters concerning a protected disclosure advise on what kinds of disclosures are covered as well as how and who to make a disclosure too, and ensure that no civil, criminal or disciplinary proceedings can be taken against a person for making a protected disclosure, or for referring one to the appropriate authority.It is unlawful under the Human Rights Act, 1993 to treat people who have made a complaint less favourably than other staff, in any way. The Act also states that an employee who suffers from punitory action from their employer after making a protected disclosure can file a personal grievance claim under the recitation Relations Act, 2000. This means if a person who makes a disclosure is brush aside (due to their disclosure), or suffers from victimisation or unfair treatment in the workplace, they are eligible to make a personal grievance complaint (Protected Disclosures Act, 2000 Office of the Ombudsmen, 2014 Ombudsmen Act, 1975 Human Rights Act, 1993 Employment Relations Act, 2000).Nurses and employees in general are boost to follow a chain of command when things go wrong, that that is non always the most effective course of action. A highly air example of this occurred in 1993, when Neil Pugmire, a registered psychiatric nurse, wrote in confidence to the accordingly Minister of Health to outline concerns he had in regard to the psychogenic Health (Compulsory Assessment and Treatment) Act 1992. In his opinion it failed to provide supreme detainment of patients who were deemed very dangerous. To support his claims Pugmire named a patient who was deemed at high risk of re-offending serious sexual crimes against young boys. The Minister responded that mental health legislation should not be used to justify the detention of difficult or dangerous patients (Liddell, 1994, p. 14 Johnstone, 2009, p. 366). Pugmire, unhappy with this response, sent a simulate of his letter to the then Leader of the Opposition, Mr Goff. Unknown to Mr Pugmire, Mr Goff released the letter publicly, with the patients name deleted. even the patients name w as later leaked by other sources, effectively breaching the patients confidentiality. Mr Pugmire was suspended for serious misconduct involving the unauthorised disclosure of confidential patient information (Liddell, 1994 Johnston, 2009).Mr Goff then presented the whistle blowers Protection Bill, in fantan in June 1994. He is quoted as saying, The reason for the Bill is that experience has shown instead clearly, that when a person tells the truth and speaks out in the public interest, but is without the protection of relevant legislation, the public tends to benefit from that action, but the victim incessantly is the person who blows the whistle. Neil Pugmire is a man who felt the need, on moral and on professional grounds, to speak out to warn the community about the risk that he saw Ironically, the response from his employers when he spoke out was not to look at the substance of his concern, nor to listen to the message, but to shoot the courier (Goff, 1994). Neil Pugmires em ployer suspended him. Mr. Goff was successful and the bill was passed, initially as the Whistleblowers Protection Bill, and later becoming the Protected Disclosures Act, 2000 (Goff, 1994).An example of how the Protected Disclosures Act works today, can be seen in an individuals right to privacy. Everyone has the right to privacy and any violation of this where a persons information had been made public would, under the Act, constitute a civil wrong. In a healthcare setting peoples information is protected by the Personal Information section of the Health Act, 1956 and has been developed from the Privacy Act, 1993 (Burgess, 2008 Health Act, 1956 Privacy Act, 1993). The Protected Disclosures Act serves as a foundation for proceeding against the organisation or person who let on personal information in a public forum and would protect the person who was making the complaint.In conclusion, this essay has outlined how valuable the Protected Disclosures Act, 2000, is. It ensures protecti on of employees in circumstances where serious wrong-doing results from breaches in the Code of Conduct or other malpractices. Statistics reflect the need for the Act and also the need for nurses to advocate and draw upon moral character. The Act has various ways to protect complainants and has been designed to be used in an accessible way, particularly involving the Ombudsmen. Neil Pugmire has been a prominent figure in ensuring that New Zealanders and health professionals alike have avenues to pursue when health practitioners need to be held accountable. The Act has particular relevance today, especially in cases involving the protection of a patients privacy.

Importance of Electrochemical Series

Importance of electrochemical serial publicationA series in which the decrement electrode potentials of various electrodes deal been arranged in the increasing order (d avowwards) is called electrochemical Series .The standard decrement potential of atomic good turn 1 is zero.The electrodes above henry charter nix step-down potential age those place to a demoralize place it have positive reducing potential and vice-versa.To understand the importance and masking of Electrochemical series we have to study about Oxidation, diminution and Standard Reduction authorisation.What is Electrochemistry?Electrochemistry is the branch of chemistry which deals with the study of the chemical changes which make out on short-lived electric current into certain chemical systems and also with the generation of electrical energy by carrying chemical responses which be redox answers in nature. And Redox reactions atomic number 18 those reactions in which both oxidation and reducti on taking place.Electronic pattern of Oxidation and Reductionharmonize to the electronic concept, oxidation may be defined as the swear out in which an atom or ion misss hotshot or more(prenominal)(prenominal) electrons. The loss of electrons is also called de-electronation. As a resolving power, thither is increase in positive valency or decrease in electronegative valency of the species.The species which lose electrons during oxidation atomic number 18 called Reducing agents.According to the electronic concept, reduction may be defined as the process in which an atom or ion agnises i or more electrons. The elevate of electrons is also called electronation. As a result, there is increase in negative valency or decrease in positive valency of the species.The species which gain electrons during reduction atomic number 18 called Oxidising agents.Electrode PotentialIt is the potential difference in the midst of the electrode and its ions in solution.The nurture of Elec trode potential depends upon(i) Nature of the alloy(ii) Concentration of the ions in solution.(iii) Temperature.Types of Electrode PotentialOxidation Potential-It is the tendency of the electrode to lose electrons and as a result it gets oxidise.Reduction Potential-It is the tendency of the electrode to accept electrons and as a result,it gets trim back. measuring of Standard Electrode Potential (Eo)-The standard electrode potential(electron releasing or electron pass judgment tendency) of an electrode in contact with its electrolyte in a half carrellular phonephone shadownot be measured experimentally due to the following reasons-A half carrell whether oxidation or reduction half kiosk cannot work of its own and can work only when connected to the other half carrell.The electron realeasing or accepting tendency of an electrode is only relative tendency and not absolute tendency.Thus we cannot determine the absolute standard electrode potential of an electrode.To work on the problem,a reference electrode is needed and an arbitrary electrode potential must be designate to it.The commonly used reference electrode is standard henry electrode (SHE) also called average total heat electrode(NHE) and its standard electrode potential (oxidation as well as reduction) is taken as zero.We have stated that a standard enthalpy electrode acts as the reference electrode and it helps in measuring the standard electrode potential of an electrode.An electrochemical carrel is set up in which the metal electrode under consideration is kept in one half prison cell and the standard hydrogen electrode acts as the other half cell. The potential difference developed as a result of the redox reaction is measured with the help of high ohmic resistance voltmeter(or beter by potentiometer). Since the electrode potential of the hydrogen electrode under standard conditions is taken zero, the in random variableation of the voltmeter go away therefore,give thestandard e lectrode potential of the electrode under consideration.The deflection of the voltmeter in the cell circuit represents the flow of current. The flow of current is towards opposite side.If it is towards the metal electrode, this agent that the flow of electrons is towards the standard hydrogen electrode. Therefore, metal electrode will act as anode and standard hydrogen electrode as cathode. In case, the deflection is towards the hydrogen electrode, this performer that the flow of electrons is from hydrogen electrode towards the metal electrode. In such(prenominal) a case, hydrogen electrode will act as anode and the metal electrode as the cathode.In General, Eo cell = Eo cathode EoanodeWhere Eo cell regard as represents the standard reduction potential of the electrode.Electrochemical Series or potential drop Series -The standard electrode potential (Eo cell) of a mountainous number of electrodes ar determined with respect to the standard hydrogen electrode playing as a refe rence electrode. The standard reduction potential of hydrogen is zero. The electrodes above hydrogen have negative reduction potential while those place below it have positive reduction potential and vice-versa. They are arranged in decreasing strength of reducing agent to form a series known as Electrochemical Series.Application of Electrochemical Series-To predict the relative oxidizing and reducing powers-The electrochemical series helps to rob out substances that are good oxidizing agents and those which are good reducing agents.In an electrochemical series the species which are placed above hydrogen are more difficult to be reduced and their standard reduction potential value are negative. The Li Li+ (aq) electrode has the least Eo value and therefore, it is reduced with more difficulty. Therefore, Li+ cannot accept electrons slow and so loses electrons to behave as a reducing agent. Li is the strongest reducing agent.The species which are easily reduced than hydrogen are pa lced below it in electrochemical series and their Eo value are positive. The F2 2F-(aq) electrode has the highest Eo value and therefore, F2 has the longest tendency to get reduced,it is consequently the strongest oxidizing agent. In general, oxidizing agents have + Eo set.Higher the positive value, stronger will be the oxidizing agent and reducing agents have -Eo values, higher(prenominal) the negative value, stronger will be the reducing agent.For Example change magnitude order of reducing power of metal isAg+/Ag(+0.80V) Calculation of the EMF of the CellThe following steps determine the reduction potential of the cathode and anode flavor IThe two half-cell reactions are written in such a way that the reaction taking place at the left move over electrode is written as an oxidation reaction and that taking place at the right electrode is written as reduction reaction.Step IIThe number of electrons in the two equations are made equal by multiplying one of the equations if neces sary by a suitable number. However, electrode potential values (E) are not multiplied.Step IIIThe electrode potentials of both the electrodes are taken to be reduction potentials and so the EMF of the cell is equal to the difference between the standard potential of the right turn side and the left hand side electrode.Eo cell = Eo R EoLStep IVIf the EMF of the cell is +ve, the reaction is feasible in the wedded direction and the cell is flop represented, i.e., oxidation occurs at left electrode (anode) and reduction occurs at the right electrode (cathode). If it is -ve, the cell reaction is not feasible in the given direction and the cell is wrongly represented. Thus, to get positive value for the EMF the electrodes must be reversed.To predict whether a metal will react with acids to give H2 flatulence-Metals above hydrogen in Electrochemical series have great tendency for oxidation,so they displace hydrogen from acids.All metals having negative electrode potentials (negative E values) show great tendency of losing electrons as compared to hydrogen. So, when such a metal is placed in an acid solution, the metal gets oxidized, and H+ (hydrogen) ions get reduced to form hydrogen gas. Thus, the metals having negative E values liberate hydrogen from acids.metal having negative E valueFor example, metals such as Mg (E (Mg2+ Mg) = 2.37 V),Zn (E (Zn2+ Zn) = 0.76 V), weigh (E (Fe2+ Fe) = 0.44 V) etc., can displace hydrogen from acids such as HCl and HSO4. But metals such as Copper, (E (Cu2+ Cu) = + 0.34V), cash grey (E (Ag+ Ag) = + 0.80V) and gold (E (Au3+ Au) = +1.42 V) cannot displace hydrogen from acids because of their positive reduction potential value.To predict the Feasibility of Redox Reaction-From the E values of the two electrodes one can find out whether a given redox reaction is feasible or not. A redox reaction is feasible only if the species which has higher potential is reduced i.e., accepts the electrons and the species which has lower redu ction potential is oxidized i.e., loses electrons.The electrochemical series gives the increasing order of electrode potentials (reduction) of contrasting electrodes on moving down the table. This agency that the species, which accept the electrons (reduced) must be lower in the electrochemical series as compared to the other which is to lose electrons. (oxidized). For example,From the electrochemical series E value of Cu = +0.34 V and that of Ag = +0.80 V since the reduction potential of Ag is more than that of Cu, this means that silver has greater tendency to get reduced in comparison to crap. Thus, the reactionoccurs more quick than the reactionThe reduction potential of copper is slight than that of Ag, this means that copper will be oxidized or will go into solution as ions in comparison to Ag. Thus, the reaction,occurs more readily thanTherefore, silver will be reduced and copper will be oxidized and the above reaction is not feasible. Rather the reverse reaction,can occ ur. Thus a metal will displace, any other metal, which occurs below it in the electrochemical series from its salt solution. When a metal having lower E value is placed in a solution, containing ions of another metal having higher E value, then the metal having lower E value gets dissolved and the ions of the metal having higher E value get precipitated.ProblemsQ- save the half-cell reaction and the overall cell reaction for the electrochemical cell reason the standard emf for the cell if standard electrode potentials (reduction) Pb2+ Pb and Zn2+ Zn electrodes are -0.126V and -0.763 V respectively.SolutionZn electrode acts as anode while Pb electrode acts as cathode and, therefore oxidation occurs at zinc electrode and reduction occurs at clue electrode. The half cell reactions areQ- Iodine (I2) and bromine (Br2) are added to a solution containing iodide (I-) and bromide (Br-) ions. What reaction would occur if the concentration of each species is 1 M? The electrode potentials for the reactions areSolutionSince the reduction potential of Br2 is more than that of I2, it means that bromine can be readily reduced. Therefore, I- will be oxidized to I2 and this reaction should be written as oxidation. Therefore, the following reactions will occurSince for the feasibility of the reaction, the emf should be +ve, and to get + ve value for the cell reaction, deduce the equation representing lower value of E from the equation representing the higher value of E.Q-. What will be the spontaneous reaction between the following half-cell reactions?Calculate Ecell.SolutionSince the reduction potential of reaction (ii) is more than that of reaction (i) reaction (ii) will occur as reduction. Therefore, reaction (i) should be written as oxidation. To obtain the net reaction, we multiply the reactions by appropriate coefficients so that electrons get cancelled.Ecell = Esubstance reduced Esubstance oxidized= 1.28 (- 0.74) = 2.02VTo predict the spontaneity of any redox reactio n-For any spontaneous reaction (deltaG) should be negative.SincedeltaG = -nFE cell consequently E cell should be positive for spontaneous reaction. E cell is the emf of the cell and is calculated from the standard redox potentials by victimisation the reaction.E cell = Ecathode EanodeIf E cell is positive, the cell reaction is spontaneous, other than not.To predict the Replacement tendency -The relative ease with which the various species of metals and ions may be oxidized or reduced is indicated by the reduction potential values. The metals with lower reduction potential are not reduced easily but are easily oxidized to their ions losing electrons. These electrons would reduce the other metals having higher reduction potentials. In other words, a metal having smaller reduction potential can displace metals having larger reduction potentials from the solution of their salt.For example, copper lies above silver in the electrochemical series, therefore, if copper metal is added to A gNO3 solution, silver is displaced from the solution. In general a metal occupying higher position in the series can displace the metals lying below it from the solutions of their salts and so are more reactive in displacing the other metals. Thus, Li is the most electropositive element in solutions and fluorine is the most electronegative element.To predict the adapt Metallurgical Methods -Eo values of Cu,H2O and Al are +0.34V,-0.83V and -1.66V.It means Cu gets more easily reduced than water and water gets more easily reduced than aluminium.Hence copper can be produced by the electrolysis of aqueous copper sulphate but not aluminium.this is due to the fact that when Al3+(aq) is electrolysed,the H2O will be electrolysed but not Al3+(aq).For calculation of Equilibrium Constant -Therefore touchstone of E o enables the determination of the equilibrium constant for the electrode reaction.